Solutions to Assignments
MCO-01 - Organisation Theory and Behaviour
Master of Commerce (M.Com) - 2nd Year
Question No. 4 Differentiate between the following:
(a) Classical conditioning and Operant conditioning
Classical and operant conditioning are two important concepts central to behavioral psychology. While both result in learning, the processes are quite different. To understand how each of these behavior modification techniques can be used, it is also essential to understand how classical and operant conditioning differ from one another.
Classical Conditioning
Even if you are not a psychology student, you have probably at least heard about Pavlov's dogs. In his famous experiment, Ivan Pavlov noticed dogs began to salivate in response to a tone after the sound had repeatedly been paired with presenting food. Pavlov quickly realized that this was a learned response and set out to further investigate the conditioning process.
Classical conditioning is a process that involves creating an association between a naturally existing stimulus and a previously neutral one. Sounds confusing, but let's break it down:
The classical conditioning process involves pairing a previously neutral stimulus (such as the sound of a bell) with an unconditioned stimulus (the taste of food).
This unconditioned stimulus naturally and automatically triggers salivating as a response to the food, which is known as the unconditioned response. After associating the neutral stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus, the sound of the bell alone will start to evoke salivating as a response. The sound of the bell is now known as the conditioned stimulus and salivating in response to the bell is known as the conditioned response.
Classical conditioning is much more than just a basic term used to describe a method of learning; it can also explain how many behaviors form that can impact your health. Consider how a bad habit might form. Even though you have been working out and eating healthy, nighttime overeating keeps tripping up your dieting efforts.
Thanks to classical conditioning, you might have developed the habit of heading to the kitchen for a snack every time a commercial comes on while you are watching your favorite television program.
While commercial breaks were once a neutral stimulus, repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus (having a delicious snack) has turned the commercials into a conditioned stimulus. Now every time you see a commercial, you crave a sweet treat.
Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning (or instrumental conditioning) focuses on using either reinforcement or punishment to increase or decrease a behavior. Through this process, an association is formed between the behavior and the consequences of that behavior.
Imagine that a trainer is trying to teach a dog to fetch a ball. When the dog successfully chases and picks up the ball, the dog receives praise as a reward. When the animal fails to retrieve the ball, the trainer withholds the praise. Eventually, the dog forms an association between the behavior of fetching the ball and receiving the desired reward.
For example, imagine that a schoolteacher punishes a student for talking out of turn by not letting the student go outside for recess. As a result, the student forms an association between the behavior (talking out of turn) and the consequence (not being able to go outside for recess). As a result, the problematic behavior decreases.
A number of factors can influence how quickly a response is learned and the strength of the response. How often the response is reinforced, known as a schedule of reinforcement, can play an important role in how quickly the behavior is learned and how strong the response becomes. The type of reinforcer used can also have an impact on the response.
For example, while a variable-ratio schedule will result in a high and steady rate of response, a variable-interval schedule will lead to a slow and steady response rate.
In addition to being used to train people and animals to engage in new behaviors, operant conditioning can also be used to help people eliminate unwanted ones. Using a system of rewards and punishments, people can learn to overcome bad habits that might have a negative impact on their health such as smoking or overeating.
Classical vs. Operant Conditioning
One of the simplest ways to remember the differences between classical and operant conditioning is to focus on whether the behavior is involuntary or voluntary.
Classical conditioning involves associating an involuntary response and a stimulus, while operant conditioning is about associating a voluntary behavior and a consequence.
In operant conditioning, the learner is also rewarded with incentives, while classical conditioning involves no such enticements. Also, remember that classical conditioning is passive on the part of the learner, while operant conditioning requires the learner to actively participate and perform some type of action in order to be rewarded or punished.
For operant conditioning to work, the subject must first display a behavior that can then be either rewarded or punished. Classical conditioning, on the other hand, involves forming an association with some sort of already naturally occurring event.
Today, both classical and operant conditioning are utilized for a variety of purposes by teachers, parents, psychologists, animal trainers, and many others. In animal conditioning, a trainer might utilize classical conditioning by repeatedly pairing the sound of a clicker with the taste of food. Eventually, the sound of the clicker alone will begin to produce the same response that the taste of food would.
In a classroom setting, a teacher might utilize operant conditioning by offering tokens as rewards for good behavior. Students can then turn in these tokens to receive some type of reward, such as a treat or extra playtime. In each of these instances, the goal of conditioning is to produce some sort of change in behavior.
(b) Formal and Informal Work Groups
Definition of Formal Group
A formal group is a collection of persons, who came together for achieving a specified goal. They are always created with intent to fulfil some official requirement. Formation of the group is done by the management. It possesses a systematic structure, in hierarchical form.
In general, the employees of the organisation are divided into groups, and a task is a hand over to each group. In this way, the task of the group is accomplished along with the fulfilment of organisational goals. The given are the types of formal groups:
Command groups: The groups that consist of managers and their subordinates.
Committees: The group of people who are appointed by an organisation, to resolve the matters, referred to them are known as Committee. For example Advisory Committee, Standing Committee, etc.
Task Forces: The group form to carry out a particular task is known as Task Forces.
Definition of Informal Groups
The groups that are created naturally, within the organisation, due to social and psychological forces are known as Informal groups. Under this group, the employees of the organisation, themselves enter into groups, without the approval of the management to satisfy their social needs on the job.
Nobody wants to live in isolation; people generally create a circle around themselves so that they can interact and share their feelings, opinions, experiences, information, etc. These circles are known as informal groups at the workplace. These groups are formed on the basis of common likes, dislikes, prejudices, contacts, language, interests, attitudes of the members. It includes interest group and friendship group. The communication is faster in such groups, as they follow grapevine chain.
There are no defined rules; that applies to the informal group. Moreover, the group possesses a loose structure. The bond between the members of the group is quite strong, which can be seen when one of the employees is kicked out of the job and all co-members his group goes on strike just to support him.
Key Differences Between Formal and Informal Groups
The following are the differences between formal and informal groups:
- The groups formed by the management of the organisation for accomplishing a specific task are known as Formal Groups. The groups that are formed by the employees themselves as per their likes and prejudices is known as Informal Groups.
- The formal groups are deliberately created by the organisation, whereas the informal groups are established voluntarily.
- The formal groups are big in size as compared to an informal group. Moreover, there can be sub-groups in a single formal group.
- The structure of a formal group is designed in a hierarchical manner while the informal group lacks structure or say it has no structure.
- In a formal group, the position of a member defines its importance in the group, but in an informal group, every member is as important as any other member.
- In a formal group, the relationship between the members is professional, they gather just to accomplish the task allotted to them. On the other hand, in an informal group, there is a personal relationship between members, they share their opinions, experiences, problems, information with each other.
- In a formal group, the flow of communication is restricted due to the unity of command. In contrast to an informal group, the flow of communication stretches in all directions; there is no such restriction.
We generally enter into groups, without knowing that Which kind of group is it? From the above post, hope you have understood the differences between the two kinds of group. Sometimes the members of formal groups and informal groups are same. The basic distinguishing feature between the two is that formal groups are always formed with an objective, but when an informal group is created, there is no such kind of intention at all.
(c) Power and Authority
When the question is about influencing or manipulating others, two things go that side by side in the field of management are Power and Authority. These two are used to make people respond in the manner directed. Power is referred to as the capacity of an individual to influence the will or conduct of others. As against, authority is termed as the right possessed by a person to give the command to others.
Many of us think that these two terms are one and the same thing, but there exists a fine line of difference between power and authority. While the former is exercised in a personal capacity, the latter is used in a professional capacity. So, on this topic, we are going to throw light on the basic differences between the two, have a look.
Definition of Power
By the term power, we mean the personal capacity of an individual to influence others to do or not to do an act. It is independent and informal in nature derived from charisma and status. It is an acquired ability that comes from knowledge and expertise. It is the right to control other’s actions, decisions and performances.
Power is not hierarchical, i.e. it can flow in any direction like it can flow from superior to subordinate (downward) or junior to senior (upward), or between the persons working at the same level, but different departments of the same organization (horizontal), or between the persons working at different levels and departments of the same organization (diagonal). In this way, it is not confined to any boundaries. Moreover, the element of politics is usually attached to it.
Definition of Authority
Authority is legal and formal right to a person, who can take decisions, give orders and commands to others to perform a particular task. It is conferred to high officials, to accomplish organisation’s objectives. It is hierarchical in nature, it flows downward, i.e. delegated from superior to the subordinate.
In general, authority is exercised to get things done through others. It is attached to the position, i.e. any person who gets the position enjoys the authority attached to it, the higher the position, the higher would be his authority. As the authority lies in the designation, in the absence of authority, the position offered to the person would be of no use. Moreover, it is restricted to the organisation only.
Key Differences Between Power and Authority
The difference between power and authority can be drawn clearly on the following grounds:
- Power is defined as the ability or potential of an individual to influence others and control their actions. Authority is the legal and formal right to give orders and commands, and take decisions.
- Power is a personal trait, i.e. an acquired ability, whereas authority is a formal right, that vest in the hands of high officials or management personnel.
- The major source of power is knowledge and expertise. On the other hand, position and office determine the authority of a person.
- Power flows in any direction, i.e. it can be upward, downward, crosswise or diagonal, lateral. As opposed to authority, that flows only in one direction, i.e. downward (from superior to subordinate).
- The power lies in person, in essence, a person acquires it, but authority lies in the designation, i.e. whoever get the designation, get the authority attached to it.
- Authority is legitimate whereas the power is not.
After reviewing the above points, it is quite clear that power and authority are two different things, where power has nothing to do with level or management or position. On the other hand, authority completely depends on these two, i.e. the position level determines the level of authority a person has. In addition to this, the authority relationships, i.e. the relationship between superior and subordinate are depicted on the organisational chart. Conversely, the power relationship is not shown in the organisation chart.
(d) Organisation Culture and Organisation Climate
Organizational Culture vs Climate
Difference between organizational culture and organizational climate is that the culture is about the norms, values and behaviour adopted by the employees within the organization while the climate is about the atmosphere of the organization that is created based on the culture. Organizational culture and climate differ from one organization to another. This article presents you with a brief description of the two concepts and an analysis of the difference between organizational culture and climate.
What is Organizational Culture?
Organizational culture is a set of values, beliefs, behaviors, customs and attitudes that govern how people behave within organizations. The culture of an organization provides boundaries and guidelines that help the employees of the organization to know the correct way of performing their jobs.
The culture of an organization is ingrained in the behavior of the employees within an organization and in a way it shows the ‘personality’ of the organization. The unique culture of an organization creates a distinct atmosphere that is felt by the people who are a part of the group, and this atmosphere is known as the climate of an organization.
Types of Organizational Culture
There are four types of cultures that can be identified in organizations as follows:
• Clan culture – It is where employees are behaving as an extended family, mentoring, nurturing and participation can be seen.
• Adhocracy culture – It is where employees of the organization are dynamic, risk-taking and innovative.
• Market Oriented culture – It is where employees are result oriented and focus on the job, competition and achievements.
• Hierarchically oriented culture – It is where the employees undergo a rigid structure, controls, former rules and policies. They expect to maintain stability, consistency and uniformity in their processes.
For example, an educational institute has a hierarchically oriented culture. It is the way all the activities function and also people perceive, think, and feel about things at the institute.
What is Organizational Climate?
Organizational climate is about the the perception and feeling of each regarding the culture of a particular organization. The climate of an organization is subject to change frequently with the direct influence of top management within the organization. Organizational climate is much easier to experience and measure than organizational culture.
Types of Organizational Climate
There are different types of climates that have been created by the culture of an organization that can be categorized as follows:
• People-oriented climate – It is a climate that focuses on perceptions of individuals who are working in the organization.
• Rule-oriented climate – It is a climate based on established rules, policies and procedures in an organization.
• Innovation-oriented climate – It is a climate that encourages creative or new ways of doing tasks.
• Goal-oriented climate – It is a climate that focuses on achieving organizational goals.
What is the difference between Organizational Culture and Climate?
• Organizational climate can be clearly identified with the perceptions of individuals regarding the quality and characteristics of the organizational culture.
• Culture represents the true image of the organization, whereas climate represents individuals’ perceptions, although there might be differences between each of their ideas.
• Organizational culture is concerned with the macro vision of an organization, whereas organizational climate is very much concerned with the micro image of the organization.
